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FAQ’s
What is DNA?
What is DNA Testing?
Why Use DNA Testing?
What is the DNA Profiling Procedure?
What do DNA Results Prove or Disprove?
What is the Time Required to Complete the Test?
Who is Maxxam Analytics?
Why choose Maxxam Analytics for DNA testing?
What kind of Casework does Maxxam typically work on?
How do you approach Forensic Casework?
How do I Arrange for DNA Testing?
DNA is the acronym for a molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid. Often described as "the basic building block of life", or the "blueprint of the body", it is the genetic material of all organisms, which is responsible for determining the inherited characteristics of an organism.
Established at conception, when the father’s sperm cell fertilizes the mother’s egg cell, an individual inherits one-half of his/her DNA from each biological parent. In humans, DNA is found in most cells of the body. A large percentage of DNA is the same from person to person because similar biological processes must occur in all people. However, a small percentage of each person’s DNA is highly variable between different people, and every individual, with the exception of identical twins, has a unique DNA make-up that defines that person’s genetic characteristics.
It is the person’s unique DNA make-up that allows DNA testing to accurately and powerfully identify that individual.
DNA testing is an effective comparative identification tool. While the most publicized application of this technology has been in the forensic identification of perpetrators of violent crimes (homicides, sexual assaults, etc.), it is similarly powerful in its ability to define genetic relationships; that is, in its ability to resolve issues central to questioned maternity/paternity cases, immigration eligibility and establishing lineage. Whether the testing is conducted for forensic analysis or the analysis of genetic relationships, DNA testing involves extracting sufficient amounts of DNA from biological samples that are to be compared, and generating DNA profiles from each extracted sample. These profiles are then compared to determine whether they do or do not match. Profiles that do not match definitely come from different individuals. Profiles that do not match but convey similar attributes may be indicative of a genetic relationship. Profiles that match may have originated from the same individual. Thus, while DNA testing is a powerful tool to help convict the guilty, it is similarly powerful to help exonerate the innocent.
For more information about DNA, click here.
To include or exclude an individual in forensic or genetic relationship analysis, DNA testing is the most accurate and powerful technology currently available.
Forensic Analysis
Since DNA is contained in all nucleated cells of the human body and all nucleated cells of the body contain the same DNA, forensic DNA analysis can be conducted between different tissue sources (i.e., blood can be compared to semen, saliva can be compared to hair, etc.) Accordingly, irrespective of tissue type, forensic analysis may involve the comparison of a DNA profile from any known or reference biological sample(s) with that of any unknown or questioned biological sample(s) or the comparison of two unknown or questioned samples. With current technology, even samples that are of poor quality or of limited quantity can be profiled.
Maxxam Analytics uses validated procedures to extract DNA from various samples of unknown origin including:
- Bloodstained fabrics (cotton, denim, leather, etc.) and materials (wood, concrete, plastic, metal, rope, etc.).
- Semen stained garments.
- Hairs (forcibly removed scalp, pubic or body hairs).
- Saliva (cigarette butts, envelope flaps and stamps, drinking and eating utensils, chewed gum, etc.)
- Tissue samples.
- Other (nasal or vaginal secretion, etc.)
For a complete list of items Maxxam can test, click here.
What is the DNA Profiling Procedure?
Maxxam’s laboratory procedure is based on state-of-the-art polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology and employs three major steps: DNA extraction, amplification and electrophoresis. Extraction involves the removal and purification of DNA from a biological sample. This is accomplished by chemical treatment which ruptures cells and separates DNA from other unwanted cellular components. Once extracted, a thermostable enzyme, specifically designed DNA primers and a machine called a thermocycler are used to replicate (amplify) targeted regions of the DNA molecule. The targeted regions are those which are highly variable from person to person. This variation in the DNA is the result of variable numbers of short tandem repeats (STRs) that give rise to amplified fragments that vary with respect to their length. Multiple cycles of this amplification step are performed which results in the production of millions of copies of each STR. In this way, the PCR process enzymatically generates millions of DNA copies, thereby making the analysis of limited samples possible. Amplified DNA fragments are then sorted according to their relative length by gel electrophoresis using an automated DNA sequencer. The product to be analyzed and interpreted is a DNA profile (or bar code-like pattern) specific to the starting biological sample. DNA profiles from reference and unknown samples are then compared for similarities or differences in their patterns and matches or non-matches, respectively, are determined.
What do DNA Results Prove or Disprove?
For forensic or genetic relationship analysis, DNA testing can exclude absolutely a suspected person from being the source of a biological sample or an alleged father from being the true biological father of a child. Conversely, if an exclusion is not found by the DNA testing, the suspected person or alleged father, cannot be excluded from, and is therefore consistent with being the source of a sample or the true biological father of the child, respectively. Subsequent statistical analysis determines the weight to be given to the result.
For forensic testing, statistical analysis determines the frequency of the obtained DNA profile in the general population. As this frequency becomes increasingly more rare, the likelihood of the reference and unknown sample having come from the same person increases. A frequency of 1 in 1,000,000 implies that the DNA match observed is 1,000,000 times more likely to have occurred if the unknown sample originates from the donor of the reference sample, as compared to a randomly chosen, unrelated individual from the general population.
What is the Time Required to Complete the Test?
For forensic cases, the turnaround time (TAT) is typically 3 weeks. For urgent matters, the TAT for analysis can be decreased to 3 or 5 business days from the time of sample receipt; however, a premium will be applied to the cost of analysis.
All information is kept strictly confidential and reports are mailed only to specified individuals or their representative(s).
Maxxam Analytics Inc., with annual revenues in excess of $120 million, is one of the largest multi-disciplinary independent analytical services companies in Canada. Today, Maxxam operates modern laboratory facilities totaling more than 300,000 square feet, in 12 Canadian cities, and employs more than 1,200 highly trained people.
Maxxam’s six major areas of testing are:
- DNA, Paternity and Drugs of Abuse
- Environmental Services (link to our corporate site)
- Industrial/Petroleum Services (link to our corporate site)
- Air Services (link to our corporate site)
- Ultra Trace and Specialty Analysis (link to our corporate site)
- Food Sciences (link to our corporate site)
Why choose Maxxam Analytics for DNA testing?
Higher Quality: Maxxam uses state-of-the-art PCR-based technology and facilities to conduct DNA testing that meets or exceeds the international standards required of forensic laboratories for criminal casework analysis.
Experience: Dr. Wayne Murray, Maxxam’s DNA laboratory manager and former head of the DNA Unit at the Centre of Forensic Sciences in Toronto, is one of Canada’s most experienced DNA experts, having testified more than 70 times as an expert witness in forensic cases involving DNA evidence. As a team, Maxxam’s scientists and technical staff have reported thousands of Canadian forensic/paternity/maternity cases and have provided expert witness testimony on many occasions.
Fast: Results are available in as little as 72 hours.
Cost-Effective: Maxxam has applied 35 years of experience in forensic testing to the design of an efficient DNA testing laboratory with technology, facilities and information systems that deliver high quality service at lower cost.
What kind of casework does Maxxam typically work on?
Our forensic biology casework consists primarily of three distinct types: criminal, corporate and forensic paternity. There are numerous cases in which Maxxam plays a vital role in the analysis and identification of DNA. Examples of two case scenarios can be reviewed by clicking here.
How do you approach forensic casework?
Maxxam approaches forensic casework using a very systematic and disciplined plan. To review Maxxam's approach to forensic casework, click here.
How do I Arrange for DNA Testing?
Please contact Technical Service at: 1-877-706-7678 ext. 712 or contact us by email at dnainfo@maxxamanalytics.com